ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION 
UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON 

Engineering Experiment Station Series Bueeetin No, 5 

- ■ - ■ ■ ■ — - -- - -- -T-- 


Electrometallurgical and Electrochemical 

V 

Industry in the State of Washington 

BY 

Charles Denham Grier 

Fellow in Electrometallurgy at the College of Mines 
And the Seattle Mining Experiment Station 
United States Bureau of Mines 


Prepared under co-operative agreement between the University of 
Washington and the United States Bureau of Mines 



SEATTLE, WASHINGTON 
PUBLISHED BY IHE UNIVERSITY 
March, 1920 







T he Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Washington 
was established in December, 1917, in order to coordinate investiga¬ 
tions in progress and to facilitate the development of engineering and 
industrial research in the University. Its purpose is to aid in the 
industrial development of the state and nation by scientific research and 
by furnishing information for the solution of engineering problems. 

The scope of the work is twofold:— v “ 

(a) To investigate and to publish information concerning 
engineering problems of a more or less general nature that 
would be helpful in municipal, rural and industrial affairs. 

(b) To undertake extended research and to publish reports on 
engineering and scientific problems. 

The control of the Station is vested in a Station Staff consisting of 
the President of the University, the Dean of the College of Engineering 
as ex-officio Director, and seven members of the Faculty. The Staff 
determines the character of the investigations to be undertaken and 
supervises the work. For administrative purposes the work of the 
Station is organized into seven divisions'— 

1. Forest Products 

2f. Mining and Metallurgy 

3. Chemical Engineering and Industrial Chemistry 

4. Civil Engineering 

5. Electrical Engineering 

6. Mechanical Engineering 

7. Physics Standards and Tests 


The results of the investigations are published in the form of bulle¬ 
tins. Requests fpr copies of the bulletins and inquiries for information 
on engineering and industrial problems shpuld be addressed to the Engin¬ 
eering Experiment Station, University of Washington, Seattle. 


ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION 

UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON 


Engineering Experiment Station Series Bulletin No. 5 


Electrometallurgical and Electrochemical 
Industry in the State of Washington 

BY 

Charles Denham Grier 

1 ) 

Fellow in Electrometallurgy at the College of Mines and the Seattle 
^Mining Experiment Station United States 
Bureau of Mines 

A THESIS SUBMITTED IX PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 

THE DEGREE OF 

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING 

Prepared under co-operative agreement between the University of 
Washington and the United States Bureau of Mines 

o 



SEATTLE, WASHINGTON 
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 
March, 1919 















Seattle ExPERiiiENT Station, 

United States Behead op Mines 



Mines Hall, 

College of Mines, University of Washington 



NOV 


Of I). 

s 1920 























KgriPMENT FOR Supplying Power for Experimental Electric Furnaces 

Electrometallurgical Laboratory, Seattle Mining Experiment Station, United 
States Bureau of Mines, College of Mines, University of Washington 



































SWITCHBOAKD FOR SUPPLYING POWER TO EXPERIMENTAL ELECTRIC FURNACES 

Electrometallurgical Laboratory, Seattle Mining Experiment Station, United 
States Bureau of Mines, College of Mines, University of Washington 















































CONTEXTS 


Page 

IXTRODrCTIOX. 7 


Developed Water Power ix Washixgtox. 8 

Power developed and its relation to electrometallurgy. , g 

PoTEXTiAL Water Power ix Washixgtox . g 

Water power resources of the state. g 

Bureau of Corporations’ estimate of potential power. 10 

Maximum and minimum power. 10 

Harris’ estimate of potential water power. 11 

Jackson and Hoar’s estimate. 11 

Other sources of information. 13 

Summary of estimates.'. 13 

COLEMBIA EIVER POWER PROJECT AT THE DaLLES. 14 

Investigation by federal and state engineers. 14 

General description of project. 14 

Capital cost and cost of power. 14 

Explanation of low costs of power. 15 

Plant not practicable at present time. 17 

Cost of Power . Ig 

Importance in electrometallurgj'. Ig 

Conditions controlling the cost of developing water power sites. 20 

Influence of variation of flow. 20 

Storage . 20 

Combination of plants. 21 

Load factor . 21 

Cost of development. 21 

Relative cost of plants having large proportion of secondary power. 22 

Cost of power imder certain assimied conditions. 23 

Economies possible on account of peculiarities of electrometallurgical industries. 24 

Summary . 24 


Presext States of Electrometallurgy axd Electrochemistry ix the State of 

Washixgtox . 

Electric steel melting furnaces. 

General remarks . 

Girod furnaces at plant of the Washington Iron Works Company. 

Greene furnaces . 


25 

25 


25 

25 


Rennerfelt furnace at plant of Skagit Steel and Iron Company 
Greaves-Etchells furnace at Bremerton. 


25 

28 


Influence of power cost on operation of electric steel furnaces. 28 

Electrolytic copper refining . 28 

Production of steel from ore. 29 

Ferromanganese plants . 29 

Billowe Alloys Company plant at Tacoma. 29 

Operations in general. 29 

Description of furnaces. 29 

Power required . 30 

Character of ores. 31 

Character of products . 31 

Details of operation. 31 

Seattle Smelting Company. 31 


Sodium Nitrite Productiox 
Market conditions. 


32 

32 





















































CONTENTS — {Continued) 


steel from electric furnaces. 32 

Refined copper . 32 

Ferromanganese . 33 

Sodium nitrite . 33 

Possibility of Establishing Electrometallurgical Industries in the State op 

Washington . 34 

Manufacture of aluminum. 34 

Outline of manufacture. 34 

Raw materials. 34 

Cost of production. 35 

Disadvantages of manufacturing on the Pacific Coast. 36 

Market conditions. 36 

Electrochemical production of zinc. 37 

Possibility of establishing an electrolytic zinc plant in the state of Washington. . . 37 

Zinc ore resources of the Pacific Northwest. 37 

Ores amenable to treatment. 37 

Description of process. 39 

Power requirements . 39 

Cost of operation. 40 


/ 



















ELECTROMETALLURGICAL AND ELECTROCHEMICAL 
INDUSTRY IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON 


INTRODUCTION 


One of the main lines of investigation assigned to the Seattle 
Mining Experiment Station of the United States Bureau of IMines was 
research in electrometallurgy. This is fitting work for a station sit¬ 
uated in a state in which, according to the United States Geological 
Survey, one-sixth of the total potential water power of the entire 
country is concentrated. A large share of this power is within a short 
distance of deep water, so that ocean transportation would be avail¬ 
able for electrometallurgical plants using this power. Moreover, as 
manufacturing on the Pacific coast, and trade between this country and 
the Orient gain in importance, growing markets for the products of 
such plants are opened up. It is undoubtedly true that in the future, 
although perhaps not the immediate future, large amounts of power 
will be used on the Pacific coast in electrometallurgical and electro¬ 
chemical industry. 

The first step in this investigation was a general survey of the 
status of, and opportunities for, electrometallurgical industry in the 
Pacific Northwest. Under the direction of Francis C. Ryan, electro¬ 
metallurgist of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, the writer, as Research 
Fellow of the College of Mines, University of Washington, studied 
that part of the subject which relates to the State of Washington. 
The following pages result from this study. 

The essential factors involved in electrometallurgical industries 
include the availability and cost of electric power, raw materials, and 
labor, and the difficulty and cost of marketing the products. A wide¬ 
spread impression prevails that cheap power is the only requirement 
for these industries. This is not true, for other factors have equal 
or greater importance. Cheap power is, however, of prime import¬ 
ance, and inasmuch as many ill-considered and conflicting statements 
have been made regarding the amount and cost of power available, a 
general discussion of present developments and of the factors which 
enter into the utilization of our water powers is first presented. Ex¬ 
isting electrometallurgical and electrochemical industries in the state 
are next reviewed. This review is followed by a brief discussion of two 
electrometallurgical industries, intended to be illustrative examples 
of how various factors influence the possibility of establishing these 
industries in the State, rather than as finished studies of the subject. 

In general the object of this paper is not so much to present a 
statement of detailed facts regarding the establishment of such in¬ 
dustries as it is to make a general survey of the requirements of these 
industries in this State, in order to give the non-teclmical reader a 
better understanding of the whole matter, and to prepare the way 
for such detailed investigations as may in the future be found de¬ 
sirable. 


( 7 ) 




DEVELOPED WATER POWER IN WASHINGTON 


POWER DEVELOPED AND ITS RELATION TO ELECTROMETALLUGY 

The development of the water powers of the State of Washington 
has not been influenced by consideration of its use in electrometal¬ 
lurgy. No plants have been built especially for this purpose. What 
little electrometallurgyical industry now exists in the State^ with the 
exception of the Tacoma copper refinery^ which generates part of its 
power from the heat in waste gases, is furnished with power by plants 
designed and erected for the ordinary class of central station service. 

Table I gives a list of the w^ater power development in the State. 
It is compiled mainly from a thesis by E. J. Beery, submitted to the 
University of Washington in 1915, entitled, “Electrical Development 
in the State of Washington.” It is believed that with one exception, 
no developments of importance have taken place since then. The re¬ 
sults of personal inquiry supplemented the information obtained from 
this source. 

The total water power developed is shown to be 254,755 kilowatts. 
By reference to Table II it will be noticed that, excluding the powder 
used at the refinery of the smelter at Tacoma the power used in electro¬ 
metallurgical and electrochemical industries now in operation is fur¬ 
nished by transformer installations totalling 12,365 kilovolt-amperes. 
The power required would be 11,000 kilowatts, or not quite four and 
one-half per cent of the developed water power. Excluding also the 
nitrogen fixation plant at Lagrande, the percentage is only three. It 
is obvious that compared with other kinds of loads, the present electro¬ 
metallurgical and electrochemical load is unimportant. 

POTENTIAL WATER POWER IN WASHINGTON 

W'ATER POWER RESOURCES OF THE STATE 

One of the most remarkable of Washington’s natural assets is its 
abundance of potential water powder. The heavy precipitation which 
is characteristic of Washington, and the steep slopes of the moun¬ 
tains causing it, result in a number of rivers of steep gradient and 
considerable flow which are possible of utilization for powder genera¬ 
tion. One remarkable and fortunate feature of Washington streams 
is that they often supplement each other. Thus one stream may be 
fed mainly from glacier and snow fields, and another may be fed 
from an area -which does not store the moisture to a large extent either 
in the ground as ground storage, or in the form of snow or ice. The 
latter stream will have a good flow during the wet season and the 
former will have a small flow because the precipitation wull be in the 
form of snow. In the dry, hot season, conditions ’v\dll be reversed; 
the glaciers and snow fields will melt and furnish a good flow to 
the former stream, wdiile the flow of the latter wdll be much reduced 
on account of the slight precipitation. The power of either stream 
alone would be subject to greater variations than would the sum of the 


( 8 ) 


Potential Water Power in Washington 


9 


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Table I 

DEVELOPED WATER POWER IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON 


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TOTAL DEVELOPED W’ATER POWER. 254,755 KW. 






























































































10 


P^LECTROMETALLURGICAL INDUSTRY IN WASHINGTON 


powers of both. If power developments were made on both streams 
by connecting them together^ the two could furnish more continuous 
power than could they if each were operated independently. 

This illustrates the necessity for specifying the basis on which 
the power of streams shall be estimated. “Tlie amount of potential 
water power in the State of Washington/’ is a quantity that varies 
greatly according as dilferent conditions are specified as bases for 
calculation. For this reason several estimates are discussed and com¬ 
pared. 

BUREAU OF CORPORATIONS ESTIMATE OF POTENTIAL POWER 

The first one, which has been given considerable publicity, is an 
estimate given in the “Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on 
Water Power Development in the United States.” 

This estimate is a modification, by the Bureau of Corporations, 
of one made by the United States Geological Survey in 1908 for the 
National Conservation Congress. The interpretation to be placed 
on this estimate is indicated by the survey in the following words; 
“P’or the purposes of this report it has been assumed that all the 
power in the United States will some day be required. Such an in¬ 
terpretation is the logical one when natural resources are being con¬ 
sidered. In other words, the schedule here presented must be inter¬ 
preted for the future rather than for the present. The reader should 
not assume that all the power here shown is economical or available 
today. Much of it, indeed, would be too costly in development to ren¬ 
der it of commercial importance under the present conditions of market 
and the price of fuel power. The schedule shows, therefore, what will 
be the maximum possibilities in the day when our fuel shall have be¬ 
come so exhausted that the price thereof for production of power is 
prohibitive, and the people of the country shall be driven to the use 
of all the water power that can be reasonably produced by the 
streams.”^ 

Maocimum and Minimum Poicer .—Two classes are given, called 
“minimum and maximum” power respectively. “The estimates for the 
minimum power .... are not on the minimum flow for any day, or 
even on the lowest average for a very few consecutive days during 
the entire period covered, but are based on the averages of the mini¬ 
mum flow for the two lowest periods of seven consecutive days in each 
year for seven years, or less, according to the length of the period 
for which records were available’” 

“The assumed maximum development rests on quite a different 

basas.It is based upon the continuous power indicated by the 

flow of a stream for the six months in the year (not necessarily six 
consecutive months) showing the highest How.’” From the flow dur- 


1 U. S. G. S. Water Supply Paper, 2;-i5, p. 47. 




Potential Water Power in Washington 11 

ing the lowest seven consecutive days in the months of high flow for 
eacli \ear^ averaged for a period of seven years, or less, if the records 
covered less, the assumed maximum power was calculated. 

Two values each for the minimum and maximum power are given, 
which result from using the figures 75 and 90 per cent for the efficiency 
of the water wheel. An efficiency of 90 per cent is not realized at the 
present time; the efficiency of a turbine, under test conditions, in¬ 
stalled in the most modern plant in the State is 8f per cent. The 
figure of 75 })er cent is said to ap])roach the average efficiency actually 
obtained in all existing plants. 

It should be emphasized that the “minimum” power is really the 
maximum continuous or all-year power which will be available 
in the future. It does not mean that it is the least but is, on the con¬ 
trary, the. most that can be expected in the future, for as observed be¬ 
fore, the availability of much of the power will be possible only after 
many years have elapsed. However, it should also be borne in mind 
that these figures do not take into account the equalization of flow by 
means of storage, and that by use of storage, a considerable amount of 
power in the “maximum” class would be transferred to the class of 
continuous or “minimum” power by means of increasing the minimum 
flow. 

The following table gives the figures for the State of Washington, 
for adjoining states, the mountainous western states (those whose 
drainage or part thereof flows to the Pacific Ocean), and the entire 
United States: 


Table II 


potential water power in the pacific states 2 



Poti<:nti.4l Horsepower 

90% Basis 

1 

75% 

Basis 

1 Assumed 
Minimum 1 Maximum 

Minimum 

Assumed 

Maximum 

Washington . 

Oregon . 

California . 

Trlnho . 

5,918,000 1 10,.370,000 
8,777,000 7.985,000 

4,109,000 1 9,882,000 

1,894,000 1 8,000,000 

8,299,000 1 5,197,000 

4,982,000 

3,148,000 

3,424,000 

1,162,000 

2,749,000 

8,647,000 

6,613,000 

7,818,000 

2,567,000 

4,331,000 

AfmitiiTia . 


Western States . 

22,795,000 i 44,049,000 

18,996,000 

36,707,000 

T'^nitAfl Stafps... 

82,083,000 i 61,078,000 

1 

26,736,000 

51,398,000 


Per cent, of power in United States 
situated in Washington.. 

1 

1 

18.4 1 16.8 

1 

18.4 

i 

16.8 


HARRIS^ ESTIMATE OF POTENTIAL POWER 


Another set of figures is that compiled in 1913 at the request of 
the Secretary of the State of Washington by C. W. Harris, Associate 

2 From Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on Water Power Development in the 
United States. 






















































12 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of Washington, and 
published in the “Homeseekers Guide” issued by the Bureau of Sta¬ 
tistics and Immigration of the State of Washington in 1915. The 
figures assume the utilization of storage, and the development of the 
power on two bases. The first is the development of continuous power 
the entire twelve months of the year by all streams where development 
costs will not exceed a hundred and fifty dollars, i, e., the continuous 
power which it is jjracticable to develop at the present time. The 
second is the “estimated average per year irrespective of distribution 
or cost.” This figure differs from the “assumed maximum” develop¬ 
ment estimated by the Bureau of CorjDorations in that it considers stor¬ 
age and is an average rather than maximum figure. It should be noted 
that the power of the Snake River is not included. The figures are 
as follows: 


Table III 

water powers of the state of WASHINGTON 

{From Prelimhiarij Reconiiaissance Notes P?'epared bif the depart¬ 
ment of Fngineering of the Lhiiversity of Washington') 



1 Drainage Area 

H.P. 

Entire 12 months at 
cost of $150 per 
H.P. or less 

H.P. 

Estimated average 
for year irrespective 
of distribution or cost 

1 

1 Cowlitz River . 

230,000 

1,500,000 

2 

1 Toutle River . 

48,000 

320,000 

3 

1 Lewis River. 

55,000 

450,000 

4 

1 White Salmon River . 

60,000 

220,000 

5 

1 Nisqually River . 

45,000 

225,000 

6 

1 Puyallup River . 

40,000 

175,000 

7 

1 White River . 

110,000 

285,000 

8 

1 Cedar River . 

75,000 

200,000 

9 

1 Snoqualmie River. 

100,000 

400,000 

10 

1 Skykomish River. 

85,000 

240,000 

11 

1 Stillagnamish River . 

50,000 

220,000 

12 

1 Skafiit River . 

250,000 

1,200,000 

13 

1 Klickitat River. 

118,000 

300,000 

14 

1 Chelan River. 

300,000 

500,000 

15 

1 Spokane River . 

80,000 

240,000 

16 

1 The Olympics . 

160,000 

350,000 

17 

1 Columbia River (with tril>ntaries not 

1 mentioned) . 

750,000 

5,800,000 


1 TOTAL . 

2,556,000 

13,125,000 


This estimate is interesting because it shows the concentration of 
power around Puget Sound. The availability of power within reach 
of ocean transportation should be a potent factor in the success of 
electro-chemistry in Washington, especially when the Oriental and 
Australian markets are better exploited. 


JACKSON AND HOAR’S ESTIMATE 

The only other independent estimate which was found was one 
in an abstract in the Journal of Electricity, Oct. 1, 1917, page 299, 
of a report by H. F. Jackson and F. Emerson Hoar to the California 










































Potential Water Power in Washinoton 13 

State Council of Defense on the Use of Hydroelectric Power to Con¬ 
serve Fuel Oil. Under the heading “Estimated Practical Development 
under Present Conditions” are given the following figures for the three 
Pacific Coast states: 


Washington 
Oregon . . . 
California . 


1,200,000 h.p. 
950,000 h.p. 

1,100,000 h.p. 


It has been impossible to secure an explanation of the basis of 
this estimate. A comparison of the figure for this state with that of 
Han is based on hundred-and-fifty-dollars-per-horsepower develojj- 
ment indicates that the estimate is very conservative, and was proba¬ 
bly obtained after very unfavorable consideration of present market 
limitations. 


OTHER SOURCES OF INFORMATION 

It had been hoped that it would be possible to prepare a list of 
pow'er sites in the State showing location, amount of power available, 
and probable cost of development. Tables showing stream sections 
and amounts of power for certain areas in the State are to be found 
in the valuable A^ashington W ater Power Series of the W ater Supply 
Papers of the United States Geological Survey, which were prepared 
in cooperation with the W^ashington Geological Survey. These cover 
but a small part of the State, however, and it was not possible for the 
writer to obtain the desired information from other sources. 


SUMMARY OF ESTIMATES 

To summarize, it may be stated that there are published estimates 
of the amount of potential power in the State of Washington from three 
different sources, all based on different assumptions. That by Jack- 
son and Hoar, which considers only developments practical under 
present conditions, gives the potential power as 1,200,000 horsepower, 
or over three times as much as the present developed power. That by 
Harris, assuming the development of all projects costing one hundred 
and fifty dollars per horsepower or less, gives the total potential 
power as 2,556,000 horsepower, or about eight times the present de¬ 
veloped power. That by the Commissioner of Corporations, which 
contemplates the ultimate utilization of all power possible without re¬ 
gard to cost of development or location, and with a turbine efficiency 
of 75 per cent, gives the total potential power as 4,932,000 horsepower 
or fourteen and one-half times the present developed power. The dif¬ 
ferent estimates cannot be compared on account of the difference in 
the assumed conditions, and the only generalization that can be made 
is that the amount of water power capable of development in the State 
of Whashington, calculated on whatever basis it may be, is of such size 
as to be one of the large and important resources of the State. 





Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


11 


COLUMBIA RIVER POWER PROJECT 
investigation by federal and state engineers 

The development of water powder at The Dalles on the Columbia 
River is a projeet so remarkable as to eall for separate diseussion. 
The Columbia River is the boundary between the States of Washing¬ 
ton and Oregon, and the power of the site could not be said to belong 
exclusively to either Washington or Oregon. On account of its situa¬ 
tion not far from the city of Portland, Oregon, a great deal of inter¬ 
est has been taken in the project in Oregon, and it has been carefully 
studied by a corps of engineers working under a cooperative agree¬ 
ment between the State of Oregon and the Department of the Interior. 
The results of these investigations have been published,^ and to this 
report the reader is referred for details. 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT 

In general, the project involves the control and utilization for 
the generation of power, of the entire flow of the Columbia River at 
the head of Five Mile Rapids, near Grand Dalles, AVashington. The 
total power resulting from this development, available at the bus bars 
twentv-four hours in the dav and 365 davs in the vear, is estimated 
to be 180,000 horsepower. The installation of an excess of generating 
machinery over that required at the minimum flow period would be 
necessary to maintain the primary power mentioned, on account of 
loss of head resulting from the rising of the level of the tail water 
in flood water periods. At stages of the river between low and flood 
water, it would be possible to generate power in excess of the primary 
power. This seasonal power is estimated to be about 120,000 horse¬ 
power available for eleven months per year, 100,000 horsepower addi¬ 
tional available for ten months per year, and yet another 100,000 
horsepower available for eight months per year. Thus for eight 
months the total power available, including the primary, would be 
800,000 horsepower. 

CAPITAL COST AND COST OF POWER 

The cost of the project was estimated at $50,000,000. This 
amounts to about $101 per horsepower of continuous power, $62.50 per 
horsepower for all power which would be available eight months during 
the year, and $46.30 per horsepower of total generating capacity. 
(This estimate was made in 1914 and was, of course, based on pre-war 
costs.) The cost of generated power was estimated under several as¬ 
sumptions. Interest rates of 3, 4 and 6 per cent were used in turn, the 
latter rate being used in connection with the assumption of a 10 per 
cent discount for marketing the securities, and 1 per cent taxes. The 


® Coliinibia River Power Project near The Dalles, Oregon, by L. F. Harza, Project Engineer, 
with special chapters by other contributors. Published by Technical Publishing Co., San Fran¬ 
cisco. 



Columbia River Power Project 


15 


first two rates represent those which might be expected if the project 
were constructed by the government whereas the latter figure would 
more nearly approach 'the conditions under which the project could be 
financed by a private corporation. These rates were used with each 
of two sets of assumed market conditions. The first w^as that the entire 
output could be sold when the generating station was ready to operate. 
The second was that only a tenth could be sold when the generating 
station was ready to operate and that the sales would uniformly in- 
01 ease thereafter until at the end of the tenth vear, the entire output 
would be sold. In addition, sets of figures were calculated on the as¬ 
sumption that the seasonal pow’^er also w'as sold at j^rices wdiich made 
the pow^er available for eleven months cost 80 per cents, the powder 
available for ten month, 60 per cent, and the power available eight 
months, 30 per cent ot the cost of an equal amount of powder available 
for twelve months. And lastly, estimates w^ere made considering dif¬ 
ferent load factors, varying from a peak demand, or readiness to serve, 
basis, representing a load factor of 100 per cent, to the 50 per cent 
load factor near wdiich figures commercial plants doing a general busi¬ 
ness operate. 

The tables are so instructive that they are included here. It is 
to be remembered that they are purely hypothetical costs, w’ere cal¬ 
culated before the w^ar, and that they w^ere based on capital costs which 
w^ere relatively low wdien compared wdth most constructed projects on 
the same basis of rating. They w^ere, how'ever, reasonably and con- 
servedly estimated, and illustrate admirably the variations in the cost 
of pow’er caused by the different factors mentioned. 

EXPLANATION OF LOW' POW'ER COSTS 

“It wdll be seen from the following tables that a company such as 
the local distribution companies, serving a mixed load at a load factor 
of about 50 per cent, w'ould need to pay a price for power of about 
-$30 to $37 per horsepow'er year of average consumption, or 0.46 to 
0.57 cents per killowatt hour, if the proposed powder project w'ere con¬ 
structed upon the usual basis of corporate finance. These prices are 
comparable with the cost of generation under the assumed conditions, 
and include nothing for transformation, transmission or distribution of 
pow’er, which expenses, if the jiower is transmitted far, add very greatly 
to the ultimate cost to large consumers and constitute the major pro¬ 
portion of the cost of serving small consumers. The apparently low' 
prices of power in the followung tables thus result from the cases based 
upon public construction at low rates of interest, and upon the use 
of the powder at a high load factor of 80 or 90 per cent as in the case 
of the chemical industries, the power being purchased and used in the 
immediate vicinity of the generating station and at generated voltage.”^ 


16 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


Table IV 

ANNUAL COST OF POWER 

Annual cost of primary power if entire load is sold when generating 
station is ready to operate. 

(^Report on the Columbia Rive?' Power Project near The Dalles, 
Ore., by L. F. Harza, Project Engineer, Department of the Interior, 
U. S. Reclamation Service in Cooperation with State of Oregon, p. 67.) 



Only primary 
load of 480,000 
h.p. sold 

Entire load of 
800,000 h.p. sold 
at relative prices 
previously stated 

0) 





'v 





VI 

o 

iollars pe 
.p. year 

ents per 
\v. hour 

t- ^ 

a 

"3 ^ 

0 ^ 

X ^ 

§ & 

H-1 

1—i ^ 





Priced based upon charge for peak demand or 
on readiness to serve basis. 


Equivalent charge for average demand at 50% 
load factor . 


Equivalent charge for average demand at 80% 
load factor. Electro-chemical service. 


Equivalent charge for average demand at 90% 
load factor. Electro-chemical service. 


3% 

9.02 

T 

1 


1 

1 

1 

6.63 1 


4% 

10.34 

1 


1 

7.58 1 


*6% 

15.13 

1 

1 


1 

1 

11.02 1 

. 

3% 

18.04 

1 

1 

0.275 

1 

1 

1 

13.26 

0.202 

4% 

20.68 

1 

0.316 

1 

15.16 1 

0.231 

*6% 

30.26 

1 

1 

0.462 

1 

1 

22.04 1 

0.337 

3% 

11.28 

1 

1 

0.712 

1 

1 

I 

8.29 1 

0.128 

4% 

12.92 

1 

0.197 

I 

9.48 1 

0.145 

*6% 

18.90 

1 

1 

0.289 

1 

I 

13.80 1 

0.211 

3% 

10.01 

1 

1 

0.153 

1 

1 

1 

7.37 1 

0.113 

4% 

11.49 

1 

0.175 

1 

8.42 

0.129 

='=6% 

16.81 

1 

1 

0.257 

1 

1 

12.25 1 

1 

0.187 


* On discounted bonds. 




































Columbia River Power Project 


17 


Table V 

ANNUAL COST OF POWER 

Table showing annual cost of power if only one-tenth of the power 
is sold when the station is ready to operate and the sales thereafter in¬ 
crease uniformly until the entire load is sold at the end of the first ten 
years. 

{Report of the Columbia River Power Project near The Dalles, 
Ore., by L. F. Harza, Project Engineer, Dept, of the Interior, U. S. 
Reclamation Service in Cooperation with State of Oregon, p. 67.) 


Only primary 
load of 480,000 
h.p. sold 


Entire load of 
800,000 h.p. sold 
at relative prices 
previously stated 



Interest Rate 

Dollars per 
h.p. year 

Cents per 
kw. hour 

Dollars per 

h.p. year 


Priced based upon charge for peak demand or 

3% 

9.85 



r 

1 

7.25 

1 

1 . 

on readiness to serve basis. 

4% 

11.65 



1 

8.55 

1 . 


*6% 

18.75 



1 

1 

13.70 

i . 

I 

Equivalent charge for average demand at 50% 

3% 

19.70 


0.301 

1 

1 

14.50 

1 

1 0.222 

load factor . 

4% 

23.30 


0.356 

1 

17.10 

1 0.261 



37.50 


0.573 

1 

I 

27.40 

1 0.418 

1 

Equivalent charge for average demand at 80% 

3% 

12.31 


0.188 

1 

1 

9.06 

1 0.138 

load factor . 

4% 

14.57 


0.222 

1 

10.70 

1 0.163 


*6% 

23.42 


0.358 

1 

1 

17.12 

1 0.261 

1 

Equivalent charge for average demand at 90% 

3% 

10.95 


0.167 

1 

1 

8.05 

1 0.123 

load factor . 

4% 

12.95 


0.198 

1 

9.50 

1 0.145 


*6% 

20.85 


0.318 

1 

1 

15.22 

1 0.233 

1 


* On discounted bonds. 


PLANT NOT PRACTICABLE AT PRESENT 

The general conclusions of the engineers who made the investiga¬ 
tion and also of a board appointed by the Secretary of the Interior to 
review these investigations were that from an engineering standpoint 
the project seemed practicable. They did not consider^ however, that 
“the growth of the power demand under normal conditions would be 
sufficient to absorb the output of the proposed plant until after the 
lapse of an uncertain but considerable period of years.” This will be 
better understood if it is noted at the time the report was made the 
total generating capacity in both the steam and hydraulic plants of 
the five large public service corporations serving the Puget Sound, 
Spokane, and Portland districts (i. e., the territory that would be 
tributary to a plant at The Dalles) was only 3-11,500 horsepower, and 
tliat the primary power of the proposed plant was over one and one- 
third times as much as the capacity of the plants mentioned. No ex- 
































18 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


pansion of demand from ordinary commercial sources being imminent 
which would double the existing market for power, attention was turned 
to other outlets. The possibilities of absorbing large quantities of 
electric power in electro-metallurgical and electro-chemical industries 
were studied, but the results were mainly negative. These two classes 
of industry showed a probable market in the near future for only 30,- 
000 horsepower if the plant were built. An investigation of the market 
for power for jmmping water for irrigation purposes also gave negative 
results. For these reasons the board of review concluded that the de¬ 
velopment of the project could not be economically justified at that 
time, and stated that for some years to come the normal growth in 
power demand could be met most economically by additions to existing 
plants now only jiartially developed, or by the development of small 
]irojects more nearly proportional to the power which would be likely 
to be required in the succeeding years. 

THE COST OF POWER 

IMPORTANCE OF ELECTROMETALLURGY 

The cost of power is one of the most important factors which af¬ 
fect the feasibility of establishing electro-metallurgical and electro¬ 
chemical industries. It is not, however, the only factor, because other 
considerations, such as the demand and the price obtained for the 
product, the cost of freight to the market centers, and the location and 
costs of raiv materials exercise influences which, if unfavorable, may 
more than counterbalance the advantage of cheap power. Conversely, 
if the conditions are otherwise favorable, power which is relatively 
expensive can be profitably employed. An instance of this is the 
ability of ferro-manganese plans using comparatively expensive power 
to operate profitably during the war period, when the price of ferro¬ 
manganese was high. 

But in general cheap power is an essential to electro-matellurgical 
and electro-chemical industries, and this usually requires that the 
power shall be generated by hydro-electric power plants. It is not 
possible to give a specific answer to the general question, “At what 
])rice can power be obtained?” because the cost of development of hydro¬ 
electric generating plants is not a standard figure such as may be given 
for steam generating stations, but differs according to the topography 
of the power site, the variations in stream flow, and the requirements 
of the consumer of the power. In Table VI are given some approxi¬ 
mate cost figures for ]iower when used for electric furnaces or electro¬ 
chemical jmrposes, with a high load factor. It will be noticed that a 
considerable variation in cost is shown. 


('0«T OF ELE(’TRI(’ I'OWEU FOR E1-E('TR1(' FURNACES OR ELECTROMECHANICAL I'URPOSES WITH A HIGH-LOAD FACTOR 


Cost of Power 


19 







c 


O :3 




bL r 


.. 'f 

71 'f 


vi 2 


bi 

I 




OJ 


[ 'w JsT 

' ^ S 

E ill 
- ci 
K I-] 


E 5 

O s 


oT ^ 

b£i O 


S ^ 

be 

a> 

:i: 

2 

K' 1^ 


rjl 


^ ^ ~ 
hJ 

- 3s > > K 

■ 7 : K -H V2 X S 


w 


^ 5 
S 5 

73 ^ 
K O 


cb ?J 


<ZI 

^ ^ cd! 

O' «H cc cv 

:Z^^^bfjbi- 

<k b: :: p ^ ^ 


c ;r 
^ .Z 

7i ^ 


a- « 
w 


c; 


O) J3 
^ C 




c c 
7 ; 7 ; 


X K 



























































































20 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


CONDITIONS CONTROLLING COST OP DEVELOPING WATER POWER SITES 

The topography of the power site determines whether reservoirs 
can or cannot be created^ and whether dams^ flumes, tunnels, canals, or 
pipe-lines are cheap or expensive. For instance, in one case there 
might be required an expensive dam, but no flume, tunnels, or canals, 
as in the case of a low-head plant utilizing the entire flow of a stream 
of considerable volume. In another case, there might be required a 
simple dam but an expensive flume or tunnel and penstock. Such a 
combination is to be found in many high head plants. Other cases 
require types of development totally different from either of these, and 
it is evidently necessary to consider any particular power site as an 
individual problem. 

Influence of Variation of Flow .—The variation of the flow of the 
stream developed has an important bearing on the cost of power. If, 
for example, a plant is constructed which will utilize only a flow equiva¬ 
lent to that at the minimum flow period, during other periods of the 
year power is not utilized. In general, the additional cost of con¬ 
structing a plant to utilize part of this surplus power over the cost of 
a jjlant for minimum flow only is by no means proportional to the in¬ 
crease of capacity, but is much less. Therefore the cost per horse¬ 
power of generating capacity when the plant is designed to utilize 
minimum flow only, is more than if the plant were designed to utilize 
part of the surplus (or as it is technically termed, secondary) power. 
In almost all hydro-electric plants constructed at the present time the 
installed generating capacity is greater than the capacity required at 
minimum flow, or if not, provision is made for ultimately installing 
such surplus capacity. If power up to the full generating capacity is 
required at all times, thus surplus power must be supplied from other 
sources during the low watfcr period and is generally furnished by 
stand-by steam plants, which can be constructed more cheaply, per 
unit of capacity, than can hydraulic plants. The total cost of operating 
such a system is, however, the sum of the costs of operation of both 
the hydraulic and the steam plant, and wherever a steam auxiliary is 
included in a system, even though it operates little or none of the time, 
its cost of operation must be included in tlie calculation of the cost of 
power generated. 

Storage .—The foregoing holds true whether storage is provided or 
not, if the term “minimum flow” is not limited to the natural minimum 
flow of the stream but includes the minimum flow as controlled by the 
dam and reservoir if storage is provided. The excess of the generating 
capacity which it is advantageous to provide over that corresponding 
to the minimum flow is, however, much reduced if the stream flow is 
partially equalized by storage. The ideal situation, from the view¬ 
point of continuous operation, would be that of a development with a 
reservoir of such capacity that all of the flood water would be caught 
and stored to be utilized at a later low water period, with the result 


Cost of Power 


21 


that continuous power could be generated equivalent to that furnished 
by a stream having a eonstant flow equal to the average flow of the 
stream. In such a case no auxiliary plant would be neeessary. The cost 
of building such a reservoir^ if it is a possibility^ is often very great. 
Aside from the cost, it is often impossible to create a reservoir on 
aceount of the topography of the site. These faetors prevent the 
attainment of the ideal. It is, however, approached more or less in 
many cases. Where a reservoir is part of a development the continu¬ 
ous power is a greater fraetion of the total potential power of tjie 
stream flow than if the storage were not available. The auxiliary 
steam eapacity necessary to insure eontinuous delivery of power equiv¬ 
alent to that produeed by the total installed capacity of the hydraulic 
plant, then beeomes a smaller part of the total installed capaeity of 
the system, and the ratio of the cost of generating steam power to the 
total generating eost is eorrespondingly less. 

Combination of Plants .—The transformation of secondary into 
primary power may be effected in another way. It often happens that 
the periods of minimum flow for two streams do not oeeur at the same 
time, and if plants on these two streams are part of a common system 
the surplus power of one plant may be used to supply the defieiency 
of the other at its low water })eriod. The result is that each plant 
operates more nearly, or for a longer period, at its maximum capaeity, 
than if they were not eonnected. This reduces the cost of power by 
increasing the amount of power that can be developed by the same 
given plant equipment, or to put it in other words, the interest and 
other charges are spread over a greater amount of power developed. 

Load Factor .—The load faetor has an important bearing on the 
cost of generated energy. It is evident that if a water power plant 
lias a high load faetor, the cost per unit of generated energy will be 
less than if the load factor were low, for the total cost of operating 
the plant is practically constant, regardless of the amount of power 
developed by the plant. This is illustrated by the figures in Table 
IV. Thus under one set of assumed conditions for financing, the cost 
per horsepower-year would be $16.81 if the load factor were 90 per 
cent, but if it were 50 per cent, the cost would be $30.26. Fortuntely, 
the load factor for electro-metallurgical and electro-chemical indus¬ 
tries is verv high eompared with that usually eneountered by eentral 
stations; 90 per cent is a figure obtained by certain of these industries 
(although load factors in the eighties are more eommon) whereas a 
load factor of 10 per eent is common for ordinary central station 

loads.^ 


COST OF DEVELOPMENT 

From the foregoing it will be seen that it is impossible to make 
any definite general statement as to the cost of power that may be 

4 Do^VaIcx, Trans. Am. Electrocheni. Soc., vol. 32 (1917), p. 357. 







22 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


generated in hydro-electric plants yet to be constructed. The sites 
that have been utilized heretofore have been those most easily developed 
and for this reason there has been a certain agreement of cost. The 
costs of these plants are doubtless less than those of plants to be con¬ 
structed in the future, however, and the diversity of types of develop¬ 
ment makes generalization dangerous. It is probable that the cost of 
existing plants, not including very small ones, would have averaged 
$100 if the plants which have in head works and dams for greater 
capacities than are now installed in the power houses, had been com¬ 
pleted, and that the developments in the future will cost more nearly 
an average of $120 })er horsepower of installed capacity, assuming 
that the design and size of the plants are such as would be dictated 
by good engineering and business judgment.'’ 

relative cost of plants having large proportion of secondary power 

There are many power sites in this state where the variation in 
the flow of the stream is great, but where a power plant, which would 
deliver only a small amount of primary power, but a relatively large 
amount of secondary power, could be built at a cost per unit of in¬ 
stalled capacity much less than of one in which the ratio of primary 
to secondarv would be the ciistomarv ratio. The total amount of the 

v » 

fixed charges might, in such a plant, be sufficiently reduced as to more 
than counterbalance the decreased amount of energy generated yearly 
on account of tlie small minimum flow, and the cost of energy per unit 
might be less than that in a plant built according to customary prac¬ 
tice. 

Consider, for example, a plant which could be built at a cost of 
only $60 per horsepower of installed capacity, and assume that it could 
operate at full capacity for eight montlis out of the year, but only at an 
average of 5 per cent of full capacity during the other four months. 
Consider also a plant costing $120 per horsepower, but capable of 
operating nine months of the year at full capacity, two months at 50 
per cent, and one month at 25 per cent of full capacity. The cost of 
energy generated in tlie first plant bears the relation to the cost of 
energv generated in the second of 

60.00 120.00 

8 X 1.0+ I X 0.05 t o 9 X 1.0 -f 2”x 0.5 -f 1 X oT^ 

or as five is to eight. 

That is, the cost per unit of energy in the plant designed for 
large secondary power would be only five-eighths of that in the plant 
designed as usual. There may be cases in which cheap second- 

5 The ‘'Report of the Chief Eiisineer of tlie Puhlie Service Commission of Washingrton on 
the Appraisal of the Washington Power Co.” and those on some of the other appraisals made 
by the Commission contain interesting information as to the cost of construction of certain 
water power plants in the state, and may be consulted at tlie office of the Commission by those 
interested in detailed costs of these plants. Interesting data on the cost of hydro-electric 
plants are contained in Gillette and Dana’s ‘‘Mechanical and Electrical Cost Data.” The state¬ 
ment made here is the result of careful study of all the information available, either published 
or obtained by inquiry among Avell infornn'd engineers. 






Cost of Power 


23 


ary power can be used, and there is undoubtedly a large dif¬ 
ference in cost between primary and secondary to serve as an induce¬ 
ment to utilize secondary power. If secondary power be used, by an 
electro-metallurgical plant, interest charges on the increased size of 
plant required to produce the same yearly amount of product, and on 
the money tied up in the surplus stock required to maintain a constant 
output, have to be balanced against the saving in energy cost. A large 
proportion of primary power is generall}' found to be necessary for 
electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical industries. 

COST OF POWER UNDER CERTAIN ASSUMED CONDITIONS 

It will be interesting to take the figure of $120 per horsepower as 
a basis, make some further assumptions, and estimate roughly the 
cost of generating power under assumed conditions. Let the size of 
a plant be 10,000 horsepower of installed capacity. The actual cost 
of ojieration and maintenance of each of two hydro-electric plants 
situated in this state and having a capacity somewhat near that speci¬ 
fied, was approximately $22,000 per year. If fixed charges for in¬ 
terest, taxes, insurance, and depreciation be taken at 10 per cent the 
cost of generation may be estimated as follows: 


Fixed charges 10% on $1,200,000. $120,000 

Operation and maintenance. 22,000 


Total cost per year. $142,000 

Total cost per horsepo-\ver of installed capacity per year. . $14.20 


This figure does not represent the cost of a particular amount of 
energy delivered, for the reason that the cost given is the same whether 
the ])iant operates at full capacity or only a fraction thereof. If for 
example the plant utilizes only a flow equivalent to the minimum flow 
(the minimum flow may have been increased by the use of storage) 
the power is all primary and the plant may run continuously through¬ 
out the year, in which case if the load factor were 90 per cent the cost 
of a horsepower-year would be $15.80. If however on account of the 
fact that the installed capacity is such that there is not sufficient water 
to operate at full capacity during the minimum flow period, but is able 
to generate only 90 per cent of the continuous power that it could if 
it were able to operate at full capacity throughout the year, the cost, 
considering continuous power only, would be $17.55 per horsepower- 
year. If possible to generate only 80 per cent the cost per horse- 

])ower-year would be $19.70. 

If the balance of the energy necessary to maintain at all times 
the full capacity of the plant were generated in a steam standby plant 
of 3 500 horsepower capacity, (this ratio of steam capacity to hydrau¬ 
lic is not uncommon on this coast) the total cost of owning and operat¬ 
ing the two plants, if the steam plant generate 10 per cent of the total 

energv, might be as follows: 






24 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


HYDRAULIC PLANT 


Capital cost, 10,000 horsepower at $120.00 per horsepower, or $1,200,000. 

Taxes, insurance, depreciation, and interest, 10% of $1,200,000. $120,000 

Operation and maintenance. 22,000 

STEAM PLANT 

Capital cost, 3,500 horsepower at $55.00 per horsepower, or $192,500. 

Taxes, insm-ance, depreciation, and interest 12% of $192,500. 23,100 

Operation and maintenance. 16,000 

Fuel oil, 7,884,000 horsepower-hours at 200 hor.sepower-hours per barrel, 39,420 

barrels at $1.00 per barrel. 39,420 

Total cost of 9,000 horsepower-years. $220,520 

Cost per horsepower-year. $24.50 


The figures for operation and maintenance, for the cost of fuel oil, 
and for the plants themselves, are all based on pre-war conditions. 
It is probable that prices will never return to those levels, but it is 
unquestionably true that the present high prices will not continue in¬ 
definitely, and for this reason, former prices have been used. It must 
be emphasized that this estimate is given merely for the purpose of 
illustrating, in a very general way, how the various elements enter 
into the cost of generating power under certain assumed conditions. 
These conditions are ones which might very probably be encountered 
in generating power for electro-metallurgical enterprises, but in any 
particular case, the conditions would be more or less different, and the 
cost given must not be taken as an answer to the question “At what 
price can power be obtained for electro-chemical industries.^’’ 

POSSIBLE ECONOMIES 

Cost of transmission is not included in the preceding table. It 
is evident that the most advantageous situation for an electro-metal¬ 
lurgical or electro-chemical plant, as regards the cost of power, is at 
or near the generating station. In such a case, if the generating sta¬ 
tion were erected solely to supply power to the plant in question, 
transformers might be eliminated, either at both the generating sta¬ 
tion and the plant or at the generating station alone. The transmis¬ 
sion line expense would also be small. Direct current generators 
might be used in the case of industries requiring direct current, and 
thus eliminate the machinery otherwise required for the transforma¬ 
tion from alternating current. If, on aecount of the necessity of hav¬ 
ing good transportation facilities, or of having a good labor supply it 
is necessary to locate the plant at some distance from the generating 
station, standard transmission practice would have to be followed, in¬ 
volving step-ups transformers at the generating station, and step- 
down transformers, and rotary converters or motor-generator sets in 
the cases requiring direct current, at the plant. 

SUMMARY 

The foregoing discussion indicates the difficulty of making spe¬ 
cific statements regarding the amount and cost of power to be developed 
from the streams of the state. It can only be said that there is a large 









Electric Steel Melting Furnaces 


25 


amount of potential water power in the state, that judging by past in¬ 
stallations designed for eentral station service the costs of develop¬ 
ment and of the continuous power resulting will be relatively low com¬ 
pared with those in other parts of the United States, but that the ex¬ 
tremely low costs of development and power of some of the Norwegian 
plants will not be reached. Costs of power and the proportions that 
these costs bear to the total costs of production of electrochemical 
products are such, however, that if Pacific and Oriental markets justify 
manufacture of these products, the water powers of the state can well 
supply the energy required. 

PRESENT STATUS OF ELECTROMETALLURGY AND 
ELECTROCHEMISTRY IN WASHINGTON 

Plants are engaged in the operation of four electro-metallurgical 
processes, and one electro-chemical process within the state of Wash¬ 
ington. These are, the electrolytic refining of copper, the production 
of ferromanganese, the melting and refining of steel for foundry pur¬ 
poses in the electric furnace, the direct production in the electric fur¬ 
nace of steel from iron ore, and the fixation of nitrogen from the air 
by the arc process. Table VII gives data concerning the various 
plants in the state. 

ELECTRIC STEEL MELTING FURNACES 

General Remarks .—There are nine electric steel furnaces in opera¬ 
tion in steel foundries in the state. They are all comparatively small; 
the largest is the six-ton Greaves-Etchells furnace installed at the 
Bremerton Navy Yard. Two companies have two furnaces each, but 
the remaining five are all in separate establishments. With one ex¬ 
ception all the furnaces are acid-lined, and, of course, do no refining, 
the operations consisting simply of melting steel scrap. Four differ¬ 
ent types are used: The Girod, the Greene, the Rennerfelt, and the 
Greaves-Etchells. 

The features common to all are a shallow hearth, side walls, and 
an arch, of suitable refractory materials, the whole inclosed in a 
boiler plate shell and so mounted on trunnions, rollers or rails as to 
be capable of being tipped. One or more electrodes enter the furnace 
through the roof. They are held in position by external supports 
fastened to the shell. A suitable tapping spout and door and also 
one or more charging doors are provided. 

Girod Fui'naces of Washington Iron Works Company .—The 
Girod type furnaces are installed at the plant of the Washington 
Iron Works; the larger one, a three-ton furnace, was installed by 
the Girod Company; the smaller one, which has a capacity of one 
ton, by the Washington Iron Works. It is exactly similar to the larger 
one in principle and proportion. 


26 


Electrometallurgical 


Industry in 


Washington 



Estimatod. f Average i)o\ver used. 



























































Electric Steel ^Ielting Furnaces 


27 


I he three-ton furnace is lined with a mixture of California and 
ashington magnesite, with a silica brick arch. It is the only fur¬ 
nace in the state in which refining is done. A single electrode enters 
the furnace tlirough a water-cooled ring in the arch. The other con¬ 
nection is made from a water-cooled plate at the bottom of the fur¬ 
nace by means of steel rods through the magnesite hearth; the latter 
arrangement is the distinguishing feature of the Girod furnace. The 
electrode is screwed onto a bronze, water-cooled, electrode holder, 
which is fastened to a cross piece which moves up and down between 
two upright guides fastened to the sides of the shell. The position 
of the electrode is controlled by an automatic regulator. The furnace 
is tipped by means of a hydraulic device. 

The small furnace is acid-lined and the electrode is hand-regu¬ 
lated. The electrode holder grips the electrode from the side and 
permits the use of threaded connections. In this way the electrode 
is all utilized; there are no butt ends wasted as with the larger furnace. 
Amorphous carbon electrodes are used in both furnaces and are said 
to give better satisfaction than graphite ones. 

Greene Furnaces .—The Greene furnaces were designed and in¬ 
stalled by Mr. A. E. Greene, an engineer resident in Seattle. The 
shape of all the Greene furnaces (with the exception of the three- 
quarter-ton furnace at the Olympic Steel Works, and the furnace at 
the Pacific Car and Foundry Company’s plant, which are more nearly 
of the proportions of the Girod type furnaces), is that of a cylinder 
with a horizontal axis with spherical segments at the ends. One or 
more carbon or graphite electrodes enter the furnace at the top through 
water-cooled rings, and a bottom electrode, consisting of a water-cooled 
steel plug, extends through the hearth from the shell to the bath. The 
furnaces are tipped for pouring by rolling the shell on rails by means of 
an hydraulic device. The single-phase furnaces have a single upper 
electrode and the hearth electrode. The two-phase furnaces have two 
upper electrodes connected to the phase busses of a two-phase, three- 
wire system, and the hearth electrode to the common bus. The elec¬ 
trode regulation is by hand, as in all furnaces in the state, with the 
exception of the large Girod at the Washington Iron Works and 
probably of the Greaves-Etchells at the Bremerton Navy Yard. The 
Greene furnaces are all acid lined. 

Rennerfelt Furnace of Skagit Steel and Iron Company .—A three- 
quarter ton Rennerfelt furnace is installed at the i3lant of the Skagit 
Steel and Iron Company at Sedro Woolley. The peculiar feature 
of this furnace is the use of three electrodes, two of which enter the 
furnace from the sides at a small angle from the horizontal, whereas 
the third is vertical. The two side electrodes are connected to two 
legs of a two-phase power supply and the vertical one to the neutral. 
An interesting feature of this furnace is the use of corborundum 
bricks for the roof. 


28 Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 

Greaves-Etchells Furnace at Bremerton. —The Greaves-Etchells 
furnace at the Bremerton Navy Yard employs three-phase power. 
Tliere are two upper electrodes and the hearth lining acts as the third 
electrode. 

Infiiience of Poxc^er Cost on Operation of Electric Steel Furnaces. 
—The steel furnace installations in the state do not indicate any un¬ 
usual conditions. The rate for power for such purposes quoted at the 
present time by the public service corporation serving Seattle is 1.5 
cents per kilowatt-hour. There are^ however, old contracts still in 
force at lower rates. One old schedule for twenty-hour, off-peak 
operation was at the rate of 0.5 cents per kilowatt-hour, and the 
schedule which superceded this provides for a minimum rate of 1.0 
cents per kilowatt-hour if the load factor (ratio of average to maxi¬ 
mum load) for the month did not fall below 43 per cent. These rates 
are comparatively high, the amount of power consumed is small and 
the furnaces are used merely as a convenient method of obtaining 
molten steel for easting. They were erected to supply a local de¬ 
mand which absorbs nearly all of their production. Similar furnaces 
could be operated equally or nearly as well in almost any other local¬ 
ity furnishing a market, and the successful operation of the furnaces 
here has not resulted from the availability of cheap power, but from 
the demand for the product and the availability of the scrap steel 
which is the raw material used. 

ELECTROLYTIC COPPER REFINING 

At the smelter of the Tacoma Smelting Company, just outside of 
Tacoma, there is a refinery for treating the copper produced there, 
consisting of three tank houses each equipped according to standard 
practice for multiple refining. The yearly capacity is reported as 
204,000,000 pounds.®. The power required for this capacity, at eight 
pounds of copper per kilowatt-hour, which is a fair average figure,, 
is a little less than 3,000 kilowatts. 

It should be borne in mind that electrolytic copper refining is 
but a single step in tlie entire process of producing refined copper 
from its ores. Copper refineries are almost always owned or con¬ 
trolled by the copper smelting companies on whom they depend for 
their supply of unrefined copper, and it is found advantageous, in most 
cases, to locate them near the market for refined copper, which is 
New York. The refinery at Tacoma is a part of the Tacoma Smelter 
and is one of the few refineries situated at the smelter. The largest 
copper refining centers, however, are on the Atlantic seaboard. They 
use power generated from fuel, and inasmuch as the cost of this power 
is only 15 per cent of the total cost of the operation, there is no rea¬ 
son to believe that the availability of cheap power in this state will 
ever be sufficient cause, in the face of the additional marketina: costs. 


"Engineering and Mining Journal, January 11, 1919, p. 47. 





Ferromanganese Plants 


29 


which would result^ for the establishment of any more copper refineries 
in this state. 


PRODUCTION OF STEEL FROM ORE 

The Rothert Process Steel Company is engaged in the production 
of high-carbon steel from magnetite ore brought from British Colum¬ 
bia. This is accomplished by reduction of the ore with charcoal in a 
furnace greatly resembling a Greaves-Etchells steel furnace. The 
furnace has a shallow' magnesite hearth and a silica brick roof. There 
are tw'o vertical upper electrodes extending through the roof, and 
embedded in the hearth is an iron plate, wdiich, when the hearth be¬ 
comes heated, acts as the third electrode. The furnace has a holding 
capacity of tw'o tons of steel. The transformer equipment consists 
of three 175 kva. transformers connected in delta to give a low ten¬ 
sion voltage of 100 volts. 

The details of the operations are kept secret, and little can be 
said except that, apparently, good, high-carbon steel is being made in 
small quantities (not over a ton a day when operating). The steel is 
poured into split cylindrical ingot molds, and the resulting ingots 
are forged under steam hammers into bars of convenient size for the 
uses intended, usually toolmaknig. The control of the carbon content 
is said to be accomplished easily, as well as of the other metalloids. 
The ore is said to be a very pure one, and doubtless the forging into 
bars results very favorably on the physical characteristics of the steel. 

FERRO MANGANESE PLANTS 

BILROW'E ALLOYS COMPANY PLANT AT TACOMA 

The only ferro-manganese plant in the state in operation at the 
present time is that of the Bilrow'e Alloys Company at Tacoma. In 
this plant manganese ores from Philipsburg, Montana, are mixed with 
sufficient coke for reduction, limestone for fluxing, and a little me¬ 
tallic iron, and then smelted in six, single-phase, open top, shaft fur¬ 
naces. Each furnace has a capacity of a little less than two tons per 
day wdien operating on the best ores. 

Description of Furnaces .—Four of these furnaces are inclosed in 
shells of 3/16 inch boiler plate, seventy-seven inches in diameter, 
sixty-nine inches high, flanged at the top, with a six-inch strip of brass 
running from top to bottom to break the magnetic circuit. The shells 
are water-cooled by a water spray from a perforated pipe which en¬ 
circles the shell near the top. The other two furnaces are of rein¬ 
forced concrete, 7^ feet square on the outside with a circular central 
shaft seventy-nine inches in diameter. The lining of both kinds of 
furnaces is the same. At the bottom is a water-cooled, cast-iron grid 
which is embedded in and under the rammed-in mixture of ground up 
carbon, graphite, and coal tar which forms the bottom of the crucible. 
The side w^alls of the crucible are made of California magnesite and 


30 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


extend up above the smelting zone. Above tiiis^ the lining is a hard 
burned fire brick which will best withstand the abrasive action of the 
charge and of the poking necessary to insure proper descent of the 
charge. 

The two concrete furnaces each have a guide wdiich extends up 
from the sides and across the top of the furnace to hold the electrode 
in the center of the shaft. The other furnaces lack this feature, and 
their electrodes are merely supported by steel cables from a car truck 
overhead. In all except one furnace^ 16-inch, square, amorphous 
carbon electrodes are used; in that one 20-inch round ones of the same 
material are used. The electrodes have threaded recesses in each end 
and new lengths are joined to the electrode in place by means of a 
threaded plug screwing into both pieces. A paste of graphite and 
raw linseed oil is used between the surfaces to increase the condu- 
ductivity of the joint. Putting on a new' length requires only from ten 
to fifteen minutes wdth the concrete furnaces, but from one to tw'o 
hours on the other furnaces. 

The electrode holders are all in tw'o parts, wdiich clamp on the 
sides of the electrodes. They are w'ater-cooled. The flexible w'ater 
connection required is an asbestos-covered ^-inch steam hose. ’ These 
holders have arms wdiich extend out past the side of the furnace where 
the clamps wdiich make connections with the leads are bolted on. A 
counter weight balances this eccentric w'eight. Some trouble has been 
experienced wdth the holders, as the electrode faces are irregular and 
good contacts are not made over the entire surface. This results in 
hot spots, wdiich eat aw'ay the carbon, sometimes producing an arc 
wdiich attacks the copper, and, in some cases, allow's the electrode to 
drop out. 

Poxver Required .—^The power required for each furnace is ap¬ 
proximately 350 kilow'atts. The current is supplied to the terminals 
of the furnace at about 55 volts. The pow'er factor is said to be about 
90 per cent. The conductors to the furnace, which are 1/4 by 6-inch 
bars, are placed close to each other to minimize reactions, and the 
magnetic circuit in the shell is opened by the strip of brass men¬ 
tioned before. The energy required per long ton of product is said 
to vary betw^een 4,600 kilow'att-hours, wdiicli is the amount used wdien 
running on the best ores, to an average of 5,500 kilow'att-hours, wdiich 
was the figure obtained over a period of four months wdiile using the 
different grades of ore showm below'. Pow'er is purchased at rates 
varying w'ith the load factor, and this is usually such as to earn a 
rate of from 3.31 to 3.52 mills per kilow'att-hour. Under the pow'er 
contract, the plant is subject to shutdown in case of low w'ater. Dur¬ 
ing the past tw'o years it has lost approximately ten days time w'ith 
three or four partial interruptions. 


Ferromanganese Plants 


31 


Character of Ores .—Tlie following analyses represent the differ¬ 
ent grades of Montana ore used: 


Mn SiOo P Ee AI 0 O 3 Moisture 

•% 9 ^ % % % 

Concentrates . 49.13 9.4 .081 1.0 2.7 10.3 

Washed ore. 42.07 20.2 .092 1.3 4.0 12.2 

Coarse good ore. 47.08 lo.OS .055 1.2 3.0 5.81 

Coarse poor ore. 38.27 23.4 .077 ... G.O 9.55 


Tile concentrates are so fine that they tend to pack in the fur¬ 
nace so tightly that the gases formed by tlie furnace reactions cannot 
jiass up freely. The result is that gas accumulates until tlie pressure 
is high enough to force a passage, which is usually along the electrodes, 
th rough which it “blows” with considerable force, materially shorten¬ 
ing the life of the electrode. To minimize this trouble, coarse ore is 
mixed with the concentrate in equal quantities. It is also found neces¬ 
sary to so mix the ores that the ALOg content shall not exceed four 
per cent. Ores exceeding this amount are said to yield a slag which 
does not separate well from the metal, ydiicli is entangled in, and 
clings to, the slag when cool. 

Character of Product .—Typical analyses of the ferromanganese 
and the slag produced are said to be as follows: 


Analysis of Ferromaxganese Analysis of Slag 


^Manganese . 

% 

. 80.03 

Manga nose . 

% 

. 13.97 

I rou . 

. 11.5 

Ferrous oxide.. 

. 1.2 

Silicon . 

. 0.6 

Silica . 

. 34.7 

Phosphorus . 

. 0.274 

Idnie . 




Alumina . 

. 4.6 


Details of Operation .—The ingredients of the charge are bedded 
in small bins and are mixed by shoyeling into the charge cars which 
carry it to the furnace. The furnaces are fed continuously and are 
kept poked down at all times except within twenty minutes before 
tapping. It is desirable to haye the furnace crust oyer before tapping 
so that no imperfectly separated material will be tapped out. The 
ferromanganese and slag are tapped into shallow cars every two hours, 
allowed to cool for several hours, after which slag and metal separate 
in a clean line if the charge has been correctly proportioned. 

SEATTLE SMELTING COMPANY 

Tlie Seattle Smelting Company formerly operated a single ferro¬ 
manganese furnace. This is a circular firebrick shaft eight feet in 
diameter, and eight feet high. Six 3 by l/4-inch iron bands bind the 
furnace together. The internal diameter is five and a half feet. The 
hearth bottom is made of a mixture of ground carbon and tar. Em¬ 
bedded under the hearth is a water-cooled iron ])late which is attached 
to one of the three leads from the transformers. The otlier leads are 
connected by flexible copper strips to tlie cast iron electrode holders 
which grip two electrodes suspended vertically in the shaft of the fur¬ 
nace. Three phase power is supplied to the furnace at 55 volts by 















S2 Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 

transformer sof 450 kv^a. capacity. The furnace produces about two 
tons per day when operating favorably. The power rate was based 
on a sliding scale involving the load factor; the minimum was one cent 
per kilowatt-hour. 

The plant was avowedly erected to take advantage of the high 
prices of ferromanganese prevailing in the summer and fall of 1917 . 
Its operations were hampered by lack of regular supply of electrodes, 
ore, and coke, and by the high cost of power, and did not attain con¬ 
sistent results. Data concerning them will therefore not be given. 
As a result of these difficulties, its small capacity, and the drop in the 
price of ferro-manganese, the operations of this plant were discon¬ 
tinued in Mav, 1918 . 

SODIUM NITRITE PRODUCTION 

The operations of the American Nitrogen Products Company at 
Lagrande, are veiled in secrecy. The main facts are as follows: Fur¬ 
naces of the Wielgolaski type oxidize the nitrogen of the air and the 
resulting gases are neutralized under proper conditions to form sodium 
nitrite. A little nitrate is unavoidably produced. Secondary power is 
purchased at the Lagrande power house of the Tacoma municipal 
system at the rate of $10.00 per kilowatt year. This low rate is made 
to dispose of power otherwise wasted, and because of the disadvan¬ 
tage to the nitrite plant of the fact that it can obtain power only 
when there is a surplus over the other demands on the generating sys¬ 
tem. So far the plant has lost completely about three weeks in the 
fall and one week in the winter, and each day, except Sunday, it has 
to be run at half capacity for ten hours. 

The operations have doubtless been ver}^ successful on account 
of the high price of sodium nitrite resulting from the great demand 
for this reagent in the new American dye industry. The company 
has the benefit of able technical advisers, and it seems probable that 
the company’s activities will expand. At any rate it is notable as be¬ 
ing the first large scale electrochemical industry established success¬ 
fully in the State of Washington. 

^Market Conditions 

Steel from Electric Furnaces. —It is interesting to compare the 
market for the products of the plants discussed, and to note the in¬ 
fluence of the cost of power. The castings produced by the foundries 
using electric steel furnaces are almost all for use in the immediate 
vicinity. Inasmuch as the rates paid for power in these furnaces are 
no lower than those which may be obtained in other cities, it is evident 
that the cost of ])ower has had little influence in establishing furnaces 
in this locality. 

Refined Copper. —The refined copper produced by the electrolytic 
refinery goes back to the eastern market, but the operations of a cop¬ 
per refinery, as explained before, are so intimately connected with 


Sodium Nitrite Production 


33 


those of the copper smelter which supplies the unrefined copper, that 
if the refinery is not situated near New York (the market for refined 
copper) it will be situated at the smelter itself. The only reasons, 
therefore, for any more copper refineries being established in this state 
would be the establishment of another copper smelter in the state, or 
tlie creation of a primary market for refined copper here by reason 
of a demand from local factories or for export trade. In either case 
the cost of power would have little, if any, influence on its estab¬ 
lishment. 

Ferro-ma7icja7iese .—The market for ferro-manganese, aside from 
a very small local demand, is in the east. During the war the urgent 
demand for ferro-manganese caused high prices which enabled the 
local })lant to get 'well established. Future operations will be in¬ 
fluenced by the following facts. High grade Brazilian manganese 
ore wull become available in the east at lower prices as ocean shipping 
becomes more nearly normal. A similar drop in the cost of the domes¬ 
tic ores which the western plants liave been using does not seem proba¬ 
ble, as many of these mines could be worked to advantage only when 
the grade of ore specified was not as high as has been customary here¬ 
tofore. A gradual drop in the selling price of ferro-manganese may 
be expected as part of a general decline in prices. It may be even 
more rapid, because during the war, on account of the scarcity of 
ocean transportation, the domestic production of ferro-manganese has 
been greatly expanded to compensate for the shrinkage of the im¬ 
ported supply, and the increased demand.” When foreign competi¬ 
tion again becomes a factor, it will further aid in depressing prices. 
Thus the item of freight to the eastern market will become a larger 
part of the cost of the alloy laid down in the east. Ferro-manganese 
production in Washington is, therefore, an industry in which the 
effect of the freight rates to the market, the availability of the raw 
material, and competition from other sources are factors as potent 
as the cost of power alone, and the future of the industry in this vi¬ 
cinity is problematical. 

Sodium Nitrite .—Tlie market for the sodium nitrite produced in 
the plant of the American Nitrogen Products Company is in the east, 
where the dyestuff industry is situated. During the war, on account 
of the high price obtained, transportation back to _ market had little 
effect on the success of the plant. Cheap power is an essential for this 
process, however, because the price for the product cannot be expected 
to remain at war-time levels, and although the question of a market 
for the product w'as thoroughly studied, there is no doubt that in this 
case the low cost of power was a large factor in the establishment of 
the plant here. 

7 The domestic production in 1913 was 119,495 tons and the amount imported was 128 070 
tons. The corresponding ligures for 1918 are estimated to be 405,955 tons and 25,368 tons* 
See Iron Trade Review, LXIV, p. 118. 





34 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


POSSIBILITY OF ESTABLISHING ELECTROMETALLUR¬ 
GICAL INDUSTRIES IN WASHINGTON 

Among the electrometallurgical industries of general interest and 
application which are well established, either in this country or abroad, 
are those for the manufacture of aluminum, ferro-alloys, pig iron from 
ore, steel, and zinc by the electrolytic method. Electro-chemical 
processes for the manufacture of caustic soda and bleach, calcium 
carbide, corborundum and allied products, graphite, nitrogen com¬ 
pounds, and chlorides, are also well established. It has not been 230S- 
sible, in this pajDer, to jDresent detailed studies of the jiossibilities of 
establishing these different industries in the State of Washington, but 
a general discussion of two of these will be given. The “Report on 
the Columbia River Power Project” mentioned heretofore contains 
two cliapters dealing with the questions of establishing these indus¬ 
tries at or near The Dalles; the first, by D. A. Lyon and R. ^I. 
Keeney on the “Feasibility of Western Electro-metallurgy” considers 
the industries first mentioned, and the second, by O. F. Stafford, en¬ 
titled “Feasibility of Electro-chemical Industries at The Dalles” the 
other industries mentioned. Although these relate to the conditions 
at The Dalles, much of the data is equally applicable to other locali¬ 
ties in the Pacific Northwest, and material will be freelv abstracted 
from these sources. 


Aluminum 

Outline of Manufacture .—The process of the manufacture of 
aluminum requires two steps: the joreparation of alumina, the 

oxide of aluminum, from the ore, bauxite, and the solution and elec¬ 
trolysis of this alumina in a bath of molten cryolite, resulting in the 
deposition of molten aluminum at the bottom of the bath. Bauxite, 
which is the naturally occurring hydrated oxide of aluminum, is never 
pure enough as mined to be used without purification. This is ac- 
coinjDlished by calcining the ore, dissolving in caustic soda, precipitat¬ 
ing alumina from this solution, and calcining the resulting precipitate. 
This purified alumina is then fed at intervals into a bath of used cryo¬ 
lite which is contained in a box-like furnace or jiot the bottom of which 
acts as a cathole. The anodes are specially pre23ared amorphous car¬ 
bon blocks suspended in the bath, and are gradually consumed by the 
oxygen liberated. The bath is kept molten by the heat generated by 
the passage of the current. 

Raw Materials .—The raw materials required for the manufacture 
of aluminum are bauxite, coal and caustic soda for purifying it, cryo¬ 
lite and carbon in some form (usually as petroleum coke) for making 
electrodes. There are no bauxite dejDosits of large size known in 
Western United States. If domestic ore were to be used in a j^lant in 
Washington, it would be necessary to procure the ore from the eastern 
deposits, those in Arkansas being the nearest and also of the highest 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


S5 


grade. Large deposits of high grade bauxite were being opened up in 
British Guiana before the war, and a considerable amount of this ma¬ 
terial has been used at the Soller s Point plant of the Aluminum Com¬ 
pany of America, in ^Maryland. Permits for developments beyond 
those then licensed were not granted by the British government during 
the war, and it is said that operations in the future are to be governed 
by the policy of conserving the mineral wealth of the British Empire 
foi itself. If these deposits become available they might be a verv 
attractive soured of raw material for an aluminum plant on the Pa¬ 
cific Coast. Deposits of bauxite are also found in Dutch Guiana. 
India produces bauxite of high grade, and ore from that source might 
also be available for a Pacific Coast plant. These latter sources in¬ 
volve ocean transportation, however, and although this may be an ad¬ 
vantage when the shipping industry becomes more nearly normal, it 
is thought best not to consider the use of these ores in this discussion. 
C rvolite is mined in Greenland, which furnishes the world’s supply. 
It is possible to substitute an artificially made fluoride of aluminum 
and sodium; this is done to some extent by the European manufac¬ 
turers. Coal and caustic soda for bauxite purification are readily 
available both in Arkansas or in this state; purification of the bauxite 
at the mine would, however, save freight. Petroleum coke is readily 
available from the California oil refineries; charcoal could also be 
readily obtained if a steady and reliable demand for it were assured. 

Cost of Production .—Lyon and Keeney give the following esti¬ 
mate of the cost of producing aluminum at The Dalles: 

COST OF PRODUCTION OF ALUMINUM PER SHORT TON AT THE DALLES 


2 tons of alumina, $28.75 per ton..$ 57.50 

200 poxmcls of cryolite, 1.5 cents per pound. 3.00 

1,400 pounds of electrodes, 5.0 cents per pound. 70.00 

Other fluxes, etc. 10.00 

28,000 kilowatt-hours, 0.2 cents per kilowatt hour. 56.00 

Labor (Average wage $2.50 per day). 70.00 

Repairs . 10.00 

Amoritization, depreciation, 5 per cent each. 18.00 

Interest, 6 per cent. 10.00 

General . 20.00 


Total .$324.50 

Cost per pound..$0.1622 


This estimate is based on the assumption of a plant requiring 
25,000 horsepower or more, and of the use of alumina made from 
bauxite at or near the mine in Arkansas. The cost of power is based 
on a flat rate of $10 per horsepower year at the generating station, 
a 90 per cent load factor and a loss of 15 per cent in line, transform¬ 
ers, and motor-generators. The addition of $15 for freight to New 
York, and of $20 for marketing expenses, brings up the cost to $360 
per ton in round numbers, or 18 cents per pound.® 

® Mineral Industry in 1917, p. 28. 

® These figures Avere l)ased on before the war conditions. They are presented Ainmodified 
because of the difficulty of forecasting Avhat changes in prices Avill permanently result from 
the war. 
















36 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


Disadvatitages of Manufacture on the Pacific Coast .—Some of 
the disadvantages of jiroducing aluminum on the Pacific Coast are 
brought out in this estimate. Freight for the eastern producer is only 
a small fraction of what this charge would be for a Pacific Coast 
producer; on alumina it would be $18.50 and on the metal $15.00 for 
the latter. The cost of labor used above is assumed to be two-thirds 
greater than if the plant were in the east; the increase would be- 
$28.00 per ton. These three items amount to three cents per pound 
or 17 per cent of the total. 

The cost of power that was used as a basis is extremely low’. 
The expected cost at The Dalles if the project w’ere financed in the 
usual manner w’as estimated at $15.13 per horsepow’er-year instead of 
$10.00^ the figure given to Lyon and Keeney on wdiich to base their 
calculations, and w’hich figure could only be attained if the plant w’ere 
constructed by either the federal or state government. If more ex¬ 
pensive power W’ere used the cost of production w’ould be correspond¬ 
ingly increased. 

Market Conditio7is .—The production of aluminum in the United 
States in 1917 w’as estimated to be 200,000,000 pounds,^® which is 
nearly triple the production in 1913. The average yearly increase 
since 1913 in the annual production w’as about 34^,000,000 pounds. 
The 1917 production may be taken as a measure of the capacity, for 
all plants w’ere w’orking at full capacity. It is stated that this capacity 
will be doubled by the completion of the plants of the Cheoah Alu¬ 
minum Company, a subsidiary of the Aluminum Company of America, 
thus making the producing capacity roughly four million pounds a 
year. It is difficult to forecast future consumption, but it is evident 
that the present American producer is providing ample producing 
capacity to take care of a great expansion of demand, and that any 
new’ company entering the American market w’ould have strong com¬ 
petition from a producer of great financial strength, w’hose cost of 
production is less than that of a w’estern plant on account of the fact 
that the raw’ material and the market are both near the factory in 
the east. 

t 

The selling price of aluminum at New’ York w’as as low’ as 18 
cents a pound in 1911 and almost as low’ in 1912. At such prices a 
plant operating at The Dalles w’ith such costs as above w’ould have 
just made expenses, w’hereas the eastern producer would still be able 
to make a profit. For these reasons the manufacture of aluminum 
does not seem attractive on the Pacific Coast at the present time. 
The Pacific Coast and the Oriental markets may, it is true, expand 
sufficiently to make a w’estern plant advisable, but until that time it 
does not seem that there is sufficient reason to justify the erection of 
such a plant. 


Mineral Industry during 1917, p. 18. 






Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


37 


Electrochemical Production of Zinc 

Possibilitif of Establishing a Plant in Washington. —The treat¬ 
ment of zinc ores by the electro-chemical method has been of import¬ 
ance only in the last few years, but is now a well established industry. 
During the year 1918 39,098 short tons of spelter were produced in 
the United States by this method.The fact that the neighboring 
states of Idaho and ^Montana are large zinc ore producers makes it 
interesting to study the possibility of establishing an electrolytic zinc 
plant in the state of Washington. 

Zinc Ore Resources of the Pacific Northwest. —The mine output 
of zinc in the state of Washington during 1917 w'as 1,195,567 pounds. 
At the present time practically all of the production is from the north¬ 
east corner of the state. This is a very small amount compared with 
the production in neighboring state, that in Idaho for the same year 
being 79,851,136 pounds^" and in Montana, 186,259,331 pounds.It 
is possible that if an electrolytic zinc plant were established in the 
state some of the many prospects might be developed into producers. 
This would result both on account of creating a local market for zinc 
ores, thus eliminating freight to eastern distilleries, and substituting 
freight on the much smaller weight of zinc produced, and also because 
ores can be treated in such a plant wliose composition is such that 
they cannot be commercially treated at the present time by the retort 
method. This latter point will be discussed later. However the fact 
that after many years during which these regions have been available 
for prospecting and development and in which time no little money 
lias been spent for exploitation, no important producing district of 
assured future has been developed, gives no great liope for large fu¬ 
ture development. It must be admitted that at the present time any 
zinc plant in Washington could not depend on local ores for its supply. 

In Idaho the situation is quite different. The Coutr d’Alene 
district has been an important producer of lead-silver ores for many 
years, and a steady zinc producer during recent years, and the size 
and continuity of its ore deposits give assurance of its productivity in 
the future. Montana is a large and well established zinc producer, 
the Butte district being one of the most important in this country. 
Table XIII. gives the mine production of lead and zinc in the three 
states under discussion. 

Ores Amenable to Treatment. —Sulphide ores or concentrates 
containing less than 40% zinc are not salable to retort plants. This 
has made impossible the utilization of raw ore or concentrate that 
contained less than that amount, while at lead smelteries, ores con¬ 
taining over about five per cent are penalized. This penalty makes 
unprofitable the smelting of ores containing over about 10 per cent 
zinc. Thus the field of zinc-lead ores, or concentrate therefrom, con- 

Engineering and Mining Journal, vol. 107, p. 57. 

12 Mineral Industry during 1017, p. 741 et seg. 




38 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 







rv*' 








































































Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


39 


taining less than 10 per eent or over 15 per cent zinc is covered 
neither by the zinc distillery nor by the lead smeltery. These ores, 
however^ are amenable to treatment by the leaching-electrolytic 
method, and the statement is made by ]\IathewsoiT^ that by reason of 
this development the complex problem “now is practically solved.” 

Description of Process .—The process at Great Falls, which is 
essentially that used elsewhere, is summarized by Mathewson as fol¬ 
lows : 

First careful roasting of the concentrate at temperatures not 
exceeding about 730° C.; then dissolving the zinc together with a little 
iron by means of spent electrolyte in Pachuca tanks. A small amount 
of manganese dioxide is then added to effect the oxidation of the iron, 
which is then precipitated by means of powdered limestone, bring 
down any arsenic and antimony that may be dissolyed. These are 
separated in Oliyer filters and the residue sent to the blast furnaces, 
while the filtrate, which contains nothing but zinc with a little cad¬ 
mium and copper, is then treated with zinc dust and again filtered, 
the filtrate being the pure solution which is sent to the tank rooms. 
The anodes are pure lead and the cathodes pure luminum. The deposi¬ 
tion goes on for 18 hours only, when the zinc is stripped from the 
cathode sheets, then melted into slabs.” 

The extraction obtainable yaries widely, depending on the amount 
of iron present in the ore and the temperature during roasting. Ham¬ 
ilton Murray, and McIntoslP^ haye shown that the formation of the 
insoluble ferrate ZnOFe^Oo does not occur at 1100° F., 591° C., when 
working with pure zinc oxide and ferric oxide, but does at higher tem¬ 
peratures to an extent dependent upon the temperature and length 
of time of heating. On account of the formation of this compound 
extractions may be as low as 65 per cent, which was said to be the 
extraction at Trail in 1916,^^ or that obtainable with certain Colorado 
ores high in iron,^*’ and on the other hand straight blende ores can 
be treated to giye almost complete extraction. The extraction at Great 
Falls is said to yary between 85 per cent and 95 per cent.’^ 

Power Requirements. —The total amount of power required in ac¬ 
tual operation will yary between 3,000 to 1,000 k.w.h. per ton of zinc 
jiroduced.^' This is the largest item in the cost of production. Just 
how much it is possible to pay for power depends on other factors, 
such as cost of labor, freight on ore to the plant and freight on the 
spelter to the markets. Hanson,^'^ in an estimate of the cost of treating 

Mathewson, E. P., Electrodepositioii of Zinc from Aqueous Solution, Bull. Canadian 
Min. Inst., March 1917, p. 241. 

1^ Hamilton, E. H., Murray, G., and McIntosh, I)., Formation of Zinc Ferrate; Bull. 
Can. Min. Inst., July 1917. 

15 Rickard, T. A., Electrolytic Refining at Trail, M. & S. P., vol. 113, no. 2G, p. 903-7. 
(Dec. 23, 1916) 

1® Ingalls, W. R., Electrolytic Zinc, E. & M. J., March 4, 1916. 

11 Hansen, C. A., Electrolytic Zinc, Bull. A. I. M. E., Mar., 1918, p. 615. 

1* Hansen, C. A., Hydrometallurgy of Zinc and Lead. Met. & Chem. Eng., vol. Xiy, 
p. 121. (Feb. 1, 1916) 




40 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


Butte & Superior Copper Company concentrate containing 55 per cent 
zinc, showed that with power at $30 per horsepower-year, an electro¬ 
lytic plant at Butte could advantageously compete in the St. Louis and 
New York markets with a retort plant in Oklalioma. Zinc ores with 
25 per cent to 45 per cent zinc could carry somewhat higher rate so 
long as the retort process continued to fix the value of zinc ore or 
concentrate delivered to the electro-chemical plant.” 

Cost of Operation .-—With Hanson’s figures as a basis, calculations 
liave been made showing the costs of treating zinc ores of the same 
kind as the Butte and Superior ore considered by him, assuming the 
same recovery, in the eastern part of Washington. It is also assumed 
that the ore is brought from Wallace, Idaho, to some point as far from 
Wallace as is Northport, where power is available at the various rates 
from which the costs are figured. This assumption was made in order 
that certain commodity rates which are in force from Northport could 
be applied. The rate from Wallace is assumed to be the same per 
ton mile as is the present rate on copper ores between Butte and Great 
Falls. The results indicate that, under the assumed conditions, it 
would be cheaper to treat zinc ores from the Couer d’Alenes in Wash¬ 
ington in the wet way than by sending them to Kansas or Oklahoma 
distilleries, if power can be obtained for $20 per horse-powxr-year or 
less without making allowance for differences in recovery. Taking 
these into account the advantage is increased. Tables IX., X. and XI) 
show Hansen’s figures and those derived from them. 

The cost of an electro-chemical plant at Butte, having a capacity 
of two hundred tons of zinc per day, completely equipped, but not 
including the cost of the primary power plant, was, estimated by Han¬ 
sen to be between twelve and thirteen thousand dollars per ton of daily 
capacity. The cost of an electro-chemical plant producing ten tons 
})er day would be between twenty and thirty thousand dollars per ton 
of daily capacity. The corresponding cost for a complete retort plant, 
including roasters and pottery, of two hundred tons daily capacity 
would be from fourteen to sixteen tliousand dollars per ton of daily 
capacity, depending on its location, and for a ten ton retort plant 
something near the figure for an electro-chemical plant of equal size. 

The above comparison was for 55 per cent zinc ores. No such 
comparisons have been made for the lower grade ores. French^^ gives 
figures showing costs for the production of zinc from 30 per cent ore 
containing also 15 per cent lead and 12 ounces silver per ton, in a 
plant having a capacity of twenty-five tons of zinc per day.^° His 
figures are higher than Hansen’s, as would be expected wdth a smaller 
plant, and in different form, but they indicate that wdth the same cost 
of power as Hansen used, zinc at New York would cost three cents 
per pound, and that the lead and silver would be recoverable as well. 
In as much as such an ore would be unsalable to a retort plant and as 

French, Thomas, Future of Electi’olytic Zinc. Pittsburgh Meeting. Am. Electro-chem. 
Soc., Oct. 3, 1917. 



Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 41 

this figure gives a good margin for mining the ore_, and marketing 
expense, the result is very favorable. 

It should be noted that both these estimates are based on before 
the war eonditions, and should be modified in order to be used as a 
basis at present. It is thought best to leave them as they are rather 
than attempt to foreeast post-bellum eonditions. If the elements which 
enter into the cost of production remain high in price, undoubtedly 
the price of spelter will also maintain a high level, and in that in¬ 
stance electrolytic zinc production should be very attractive in Wash¬ 
ington. 


Table IX 

comparative cost per ton zinc for treating butte and superior orb 

AS given by C. a. HANSEN 



Retort process 
Oklahoma 

Electrochemical pro¬ 
cess, Butte, Montana 

Plant capacity tons zinc per day. 

200 

200 

Cost per ton zinc : 



Salaries . 

$ 1.25 

$ 0.93 

Labor at $1.75, $2.00 and $3.50. 

11.30 

6.00 

Gas at 4c. 

2.93 

• • • . 

Coal at $2.00. 

1.67 

.... 

Power at $26.00 per h.p. yr. 3680 kw. hr.. . 

• • • . 

14.65 

Clay. 

0.63 

.... 

Repairs and sundries . 

1.04 

4.14 


$18.82 

$25.72 

Fixed capital charges 16y2% first cost. .. . 

6.36 

5.70 

Total treatment cost. 

$25.18 

$31.42 

Freight on concentrate to Oklahoma. 

16.62 

0.00 


$41.80 $41.80 

$31.42 $31.42 

Freight to St. Louis on zinc. 

_ 2.60 

_ 9.00 

Freight to New York on zinc. 

7.20 _ 

10.00 _ 

Treatment cost and freight per ton zinc; 



f.o.b. St. Louis. 

_ $44.40 

_ $40.42 

f.o.b. New York. 

$49.00 _ 

$41.42 _ 

Above figures neglect mining and milling 



costs to produce concentrates; also neg- 



lect relative recoveries of zinc values 



which Avould be: 



For retort process, say. 

8Y.0% • • • • 

.... . • • • 

For electro-chemical process. 

.... .... 

_ 93.0% 

Correcting for relative recoveries, the rela- 



tive treatment and freight costs on above 



basis would be about; 



For St. Louis delivery. 

_ $44.40 

_ $37.06 

For New York delivery. 

$49.00 - 

$38.06 - 

Equivalent cost per lb. zinc. 

2.45c 2.22c 

1.903c 1.853c 

Net value of silver, lead, copper in residues 



from Butte-Superior concentrate (26 oz. 



Ag.) . 

$7.20 

$22.70 



















































42 


Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


Table X 

cost per ton of zinc IMADE in electrolytic plant in WASHINGTON FROM 

COEUR D’ALENE ORE 

Assuming poAver costs as belOAV and freight rates proportional to Butte-Great Falls rates. 



i 

1 

1 

Power 

RateSj 

DOLLARS TER 

HORSEPOAVER-YEAR 


1 

1 

1 

$10. 

1 

1 

$12. 

1 

1 

1 

$15. 

1 

1 $20. 

1 

Bartlesville 
* Retort 

1 Plant 

Salaries . 

1 

1 

$0.93 

6.00 

1 

1 


1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

Labor . 

1 

1 


1 


1 

1 

1 

Repairs . 

1 

4.14 

1 


1 


1 

1 

Fixed capital charges . 

1 

5.70 

1 


i 


1 

1 

Freight on 1.96 ton to Washington 
point at $3.54. 

1 

I 

6.95 

1 

1 


i 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

Freight on spelter to New York at 
$12.00 per ton. 

1 

1 

12.00 

1 

1 


I 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 


1 

1 


1 


I 

1 

Operating costs exclusive of power. 
Pow’er . 

1 

1 

1 

$35.72 

5.64 

1 

1 

1 

$35.72 

6.77 

1 

1 

1 

$35.72 

8.46 

1 

1 $35.72 

1 11.28 

1 

1 

1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Total cost per ton of zinc: 

f.o.b. NeAA- York. 

f.o.b. St. Louis. 

1 

1 

1 

$41.36 

39.36 

1 

1 

1 

1 

$42.49 

40.49 

1 

1 

1 

1 

.$44.18 

42.18 

1 

1 

1 $47.00 

1 45.00 

1 

1 

1 

1 $52.78 

1 48.18 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 



































Electrometallurgical Industry in Washington 


43 




Table XI 


COST per ton of zinc made from COEUR D’ALENE ORE 

AT BARTLESVILLE, OKLAHO:\IA 


IN A RETORT PLANT 


Salaries . 

$ 1.25 




Labor . 





Gas at 4c per cu. it. 

2.93 




Coal at $2.00. 

1.67 




Clay . 





Repairs and sundries . 

1.04 





$18.82 




Fixed charges . 

6.36 




Total treatment charges . 

$25.18 

$25.18 

$25.18 

$25.18 

Freight, Okla., on cone. 2.09 ton at $9.75. . . . 


20.40 

20.40 

20.40 



$45.58 

$45.58 

$45.58 

Freight zinc to New' York. 



7.20 


Total to New York. 



$52.78 


Freight zinc to St. Louis. 




2.60 

Total to St. Louis. 




$48.18 


Corroctinf!^ for 
.06 


.93 


rpcoveries, -niiich arc 87% for retort and 93% for electrolytic, deduct 
X 52.78 = 3.41 from cost of electrolytic zinc for New York delivery and 


.06 

^93 


X 


48.18 


3.11 for St. Louis delivery. 


Cost per ton electi’olytic zinc at New York. 

Deduct . 

Equivalent cost per ton electrolytic zinc at 

New' Y’ork . 

Cost per ton retort zinc. 

Cost per ton electrolytic zinc at St. Louis. 

Deduct . 

Equivalent cost per ton electrolytic zinc at 

St. Louis. 

Cost per ton retort .. 


POW'ER R.A.TES, DOLLARS TER HORSEPOWER-TEAR 


$10. 

1 

$12. 

1 

$15. 

1 

$20. 

$41.36 

1 

1 

$42.49 

1 

I 

$44.18 

1 

1 

$47.00 

3.41 

1 

3.41 

1 

3.41 

1 

3.41 

$37.95 

1 

1 

1 

$39.08 

1 

1 

I 

$40.77 

1 

1 

$43.59 

$52.78 

1 


1 


1 


$39.36 

1 

$40.49 

1 

$42.18 

1 

$43.59 

3.11 

1 

3.11 

1 

3.11 

1 

3.11 

036.25 

1 

1 

1 

$37.38 

1 

1 

$39.07 

1 

1 

$41.89 

$48.18 

1 

1 


1 

1 


1 

1 





























































University of Washington 


ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION 

THE STAFF 

Hexry Stjzzallo, Ph. D. (Columbia), LL. D. (California), President. 

John Thomas Condon, LL. M. (Nortlnvestern), Dean of Faculties. 

Carl Edward Magnusson, Ph. D. (Wisconsin), E. E. (Minnesota), Electrical Engineering; 
Acting Director. 

Hugo Winkenwerder, M. F. (Yale), Forest Products. 

Milnor Roberts, A. B. (Stanford), Mining and Metallurgy. 

Henry Kreitzer Benson, Ph. D. (Columbia), Chemical Engineering and Industrial Chemistry. 
Charles William Harris, B. S. (C. E.) (Washington), C. E. (Cornell), Civil Engineering. 

Everett Owen Eastwood, C. E., A. M. (Virginia), S. B. (Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ 
nology), Mechanical Engineering. 

Trederick Arthur Osborn, Ph. D. (Michigan), Physics Standards and Tests. 


The Engineering Experiment Station was formally organized in 
December, 1917, in order to coordinate the engineering investigations 
in progress and to facilitate the development of industrial research 
in the University. 

A large number of investigations in the industrial field have been 
in progress for many years in the University, either by the efforts 
of individual faculty members and students or through organized 
groups, such as the Timber Testing Laboratory, the Bureau of Test¬ 
ing, Radio Experiment Station, and especially the Bureau of Industrial 
Research. As an indication of the research already accomplished, 
reference is made to the important papers already published. 

The Engineering Experiment Station includes all the bureaus and 
departmental groups previously active in engineering and industrial 
research, as well as the field occupied by individual investigators. 

The scope of the work is twofold: 

(a) To investigate and to publish information concerning engin¬ 
eering problems of a more or less general nature that would be help¬ 
ful in municipal, rural and industrial affairs; 

(b) To undertake extended research and to publish reports on 
■engineering and scientific problems. 

The purpose of the station is to aid in the industrial development 
of the state and nation by scientific research and by furnishing infor¬ 
mation for the solution of engineering problems. Every effort will 



be made to cooperate effectively with professional engineers and the 
industrial organizations in the state. Investigations of primary inter¬ 
est to the individual or corporation proposing them^ as well as those 
of general interest^ will be undertaken through the establishment of 
fellowships. 

The control of the Engineering Experiment Station is vested in 
an administrative staff consisting of the president of the University, 
the dean of the College of Engineering, as ex-officio director, and seven 
members of the faculty. For administrative purposes, the work of 
the station is organized into seven divisions: 

1. Forest Products. 

This division covers the field of the College of Forestry, and in¬ 
cludes wood distillation, wood preservation and cooperative work with 
the Seattle Station of the United States Timber Testing I^aboratory. 

2. Mining and Metallurgy. 

This division represents the field of the College of Mines, and 
includes cooperative w^ork with the Seattle Mining Experiment Station 
of the United States Bureau of Mines. 

3. Chemical Engineering and Industrial Chemistry. 

This division represents the application of chemistry to engineer¬ 
ing and industrial problems. 

4. Civil Engineering. 

This division covers the field of the Department of Civil Engin¬ 
eering, with emphasis on hydraulic and sanitary engineering and the 
testing of road and structural materials. 

5. Electrical Engineering. 

This division includes the several branches of electrical engineer¬ 
ing: electric railways, telephones, telegraphs, radio, illumination, and 
electric power. 

7. Physics Standards and Tests. 

This division is equipped with reliable physical standards, and 
the work is largely calibrating and testing of instruments and other 
physical apparatus. 

6. Mechanical Engineering. This division includes mechan¬ 
ical engineering, marine engineering, and aeronautics. 

Inquiries in regard to the work of the Engineering Experiment 
Station should be addressed to the Director. 



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Publications of the Engineering Experiment Station 

University of Washington 

j 

Bulletin No. 1— Creosoted Wood Stave Pipe and Its Effect Upon Water 
” for Domestic and Irri^ational Uses. 1917. 

(Bureau of Industrial Research.) 20 pp. Price, 25 cents. 

Bulletin No. 2—-An Investigation of the Iron Ore Resources of the North¬ 
west. By William Harrison Whittier. 1917. 

(Bureau of Industrial Research.) 128 pp. Price, 60 cents. 

Bulletin No. 3—An Industrial Survey of Seattle. By Curtis C. Aller. 

1918. 

(Bureau qf Industrial Research.) 64 pp. Price, 50 cents. 

Bulletin No. 4—A Summary of Mining and Metalliferous Mineral Re¬ 
sources in the State of Washington with Bibliography. 
By Aithur Homer Fischer. 

124 pp. . Price, 75 cents. 





